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ANIMAL| STUNNING TYPES, PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES.

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  INTRODUCTION. The aim of stunning is to render the animal unconscious as soon as possible so as to prevent pain and suffering during the killing process. The stunning process ensures the animal is unconscious and insensible to pain before being bled out at slaughter. Common stunning methods include electrical stunning. The animal must remain unconscious until death. The need for stunning is acknowledged all over the world, and no slaughtering may be done at an abattoir unless the animal has been stunned in the approved manner. Whether stunning is to be achieved by means of electric or captive bolt apparatus, the apparatus concerned shall be examined and tested before use each and every day it is to be used, and at TYPES OF STUNNING. 1.       CAPTIVE BOLT STUNNING The contact-firing types of captive bolt pistol  are much more satisfactory than the trigger-operated ones, only a light tap on the animal’s head being necessary to fire them....
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INTRODUCTION TO WATER QUALITY SURVEILLANCE.

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  RATIONALE: The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that about 94% of diarrhoeal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including interventions to increase the availability of clean water, and to improve sanitation and hygiene. In addition, a 2005 systematic review concluded that diarrhoeal episodes are reduced by 25% through improving water supply, 32% by improving sanitation, and 45% through improved personal hygiene. In Zambia, the problem of contaminated drinking water in rural and peri-urban areas is exacerbated by unplanned settlements, insufficient number of improved water sources, overcrowding, poor sanitation and indiscriminate dumping of solid waste. This justifies the carrying out of on-site water monitoring.  Water is essential for life, health and human dignity. In extreme situations, there may not be sufficient water available to meet basic needs, and in these cases supplying a survival level of safe drinking water is of critical ...
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ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY.

 INTRODUCTION The course focuses on the principles of environmental epidemiology, its practical applications for investigation of public health problems, planning, implementation and evaluation of intervention strategies to deal with environmental challenges.. UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGY : UNIT 2: CONCEPTS USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY : UNIT 3: MEASURES OF FREQUENCY OF HEALTH EVENTS: 3.1 Ratio, proportion and rates; 3.2 Fertility rates 3.2.1 Birth rate; 3.2.2 General fertility rate 3.2.3 Age specific rate 3.3 Measures of morbidity 3.3.1 Incidence rate 3.3.2 Prevalence rate 3.3.3 Attack rate 3.4 Measures of mortality 3.4.1 Crude mortality rate 3.4.2 Infant mortality rate 3.4.3 Case fatality rate 3.4.4 Proportionate mortality 3.5 Demography UNIT 4: EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND ESTIMATIONS 4.1 Concept of exposure assessment 4.2 Exposure pathways and media 4.3 Dose (administered dose, absorbed dose or up take dose, and active or biological  effective dose); 4.4 Multiple exposur...
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